Expanded Usage Checklist

See on.

Avoid stiff references to something preceding or following in an essay. Rather than “for the above reasons,” write “for these (or those, or the foregoing, or the preceding) reasons”; instead of “for the reasons given below,” write “for the following reasons.” If you find yourself writing “as I said above” or “as I will explain below” and the like, the organization of your writing may need work; try revising your plan or outline.

See unique etc.

See very.

Advice is a noun, usually used in uncountable form. Advise is the transitive verb form.

My faculty advisor has given me good advice in planning my major. [noun]
He advised his brother to consider studying abroad for a year. [transitive verb in past tense form; its direct object is his brother.

Avoid the common confusion of these two words. Affect is a transitive verb meaning “to act upon” or “to influence”; effect is a noun meaning “result, consequence”:

He tried to affect the outcome, but his efforts had no effect.
Proofread carefully, since this error often appears in writing done under time pressures. (Note: Effect can also be a verb, meaning “to bring about, to cause”; see your dictionary for two other meanings of affect, one a verb and one a noun.)

See toward, towards.

The verb aggravate is often colloquially or informally used to mean “annoy, irritate, anger, vex.” But properly speaking, only a condition, not a person, can be aggravated, and only if it is already bad; aggravate means “make worse”:

Standing in the hot sun will aggravate your headache.
The unexpectedly high tax bill aggravated the small company’s already serious financial condition.

Use the correct preposition with agree. One agrees to a proposal or request, or agrees to do something; one agrees with someone about a question or opinion, and certain climates or foods agree with a person; one agrees on (or about) the terms or details of something settled after negotiation, or agrees on a course of action.

A nonstandard contraction, ain’t is primarily equivalent to aren’t and isn’t. Avoid it in all writing unless for deliberate colloquial or humorous effect, as in “If it ain’t broke, don’t fix it.”

See of.

See in terms of.

Alternate (adjective) means “by turns,” or “every other one.” Alternative (adjective or noun) refers to one of a number of possible choices (usually two). Don’t use alternate or alternately when the sense has something to do with choice:

In summer they could water their lawns only on alternate days.
The squares on the board are alternately red and black.
The judge had no alternative: he had to dismiss the charges.
There is an alternative method, much simpler than the one you are using.
She could meekly resign or, alternatively, she could take her case to the grievance committee.
Alternate is used legitimately to refer to a substitute or standby: “Each delegate to the convention had a designated alternate. She served as an alternate delegate.”

These conjunctions introduce adverbial phrases or clauses of concession. They mean the same, but although with its two syllables usually sounds smoother, less abrupt, at the beginning of a sentence; though is more commonly used to begin a subordinate clause following an independent clause, though it can be slightly emphatic at the start of a sentence. But the two words are not always interchangeable: in even though and as though one cannot substitute although, and although cannot serve as an adverb at the end of a sentence or clause. (See also despite that and while.)

See between, among.

Use number only with countable things (i.e. with nouns that have both singular and plural forms), amount only with mass, uncountable nouns: a number of coins, an amount of change; a large number of cars, a large amount of traffic. Number usually takes a singular verb after the definite article, and a plural verb after the indefinite article (see #18f).

The number of students taking the workshop is encouraging.
A number of students are planning to take the workshop.

See while.

This is worth avoiding, unless you’re writing legal phraseology. Write “We’ll get there on foot or horseback, or both,” rather than “We’ll get there on foot and/or horseback.” And with more than two items, and/or muddies meaning: “This bread can be made with wheat, barley, and/or rye.”

See mad.

Anxious means much more than just “eager”: use it only when there is at least some degree of real anxiety or angst.

For the adverb meaning “now” or “nowadays,” both spellings are common (though some dictionaries still don’t recognize one or the other). Whichever spelling you use, use it only in negative statements (or positive statements with a negative implication) and in questions (“I don’t get around much any more”; “I seldom attend sports events any more”; “Do you lie in the sun anymore?”).

These colloquial synonyms for anywhere and somewhere should be avoided in formal writing.

These are nonstandard forms. Use anyway, anywhere, etc.

See in terms of.

See likely, liable, apt.

The word area refers strictly to a physical division of space on a surface. Avoid using it as an unnecessarily vague term to refer to some abstract division, such as a field of study, a problem, or an activity (the area of the social sciences, the area of finance, the area of biblical interpretation). Weather forecasters and others are also fond of area as a substitute for region, district, neighbourhood (the eastern Alberta area, the Ottawa area). And journalists sometimes use it awkwardly as an adjective, e.g. in headlines (“Area man attacked by rabid dog”; “Area teenagers march in protest”). These usages, too, are worth avoiding.

To avoid ambiguity, don’t use as in such a way that it can mean either “while” or “because”:

ambig: As I was walking after dark I tripped over a tree root.
ambig: As I added the brandy, the cherries jubilee caught fire.
ambig: The car gathered speed quickly as I pressed harder on the accelerator.
Because of such potential ambiguity, some writers have banished as in the sense of because from their vocabularies. Another awkward use of as occurs in sentences like
awk: The book was considered as a threat to the state.
Here, as is unnecessary—or else needs something like “as a possible threat” to be clear.

See equally as and so . . . as.

Don’t follow with being when as alone is enough:

He always thinks of himself as [not as being] the life of the party.
She sees the deputy premier as [not as being] an incompetent legislator.

This construction has a wordy, jargon-like air about it, but if you feel that you need to use it anyway, don’t leave it unfinished, as in this example:

As far as financing my education, I’m going to have to get a summer job.
The error may stem from a confusion of as far as with as for.

See in terms of.

This phrase shouldn’t be used as if it were equivalent to thus or therefore:

us: My uncle wants to be well liked. As such, he always gives expensive gifts.

See like, as, as if, as though.

This is a stiff jargon phrase worth avoiding; substitution or rephrasing will usually improve expression:

ineffective: He made several recommendations as to the best method of proceeding.
better: He made several recommendations with respect to the best method of proceeding.
still better: He recommended several methods of proceeding.
ineffective: I was in doubt as to which road to take.
better: I was in doubt about which road to take.
still better: I was not sure which road to take.
or
I did not know which road to take.

Awaiting is not followed by the preposition for; waiting is:

I was awaiting the train’s arrival.
I was waiting for the light to change.

When used as intensifiers (“They were awfully kind to us”) awful and awfully are colloquialisms that should be avoided in formal writing. (See also very and #64b.)

Most authorities object to the adverb awhile instead of the noun phrase a while in some positions, for example after a preposition such as for: sleep awhile; sleep for a while. Others contend that either form is acceptable.

See toward, towards.

See good, bad, badly, well.

See can’t hardly etc.

Basis is a perfectly good noun, but some prepositional phrases using it are worth avoiding when possible, for outside of technical contexts they usually amount to wordy jargon.

She made her decision on the basis of the committee’s report.

See reason . . . is because; see also #48c.

See due to.

These are colloquial or dialectal substitutes for because or since to introduce a subordinate clause, as is seeing as (how), though seeing that is acceptable.

See feel(s).

See above, below.

Beside, a preposition, means “next to, in comparison with”; besides as an adverb means “in addition, also, too, as well”; as a preposition, besides means “in addition to, except for, other than”:

She stood beside her car.
Her objections were minuscule beside those of her brother.
She knew she would have to pay the cost of repairs and the towing charges besides.
Besides the cost of repairs, she knew she would have to pay towing charges.
There was no one on the beach besides the three of us.
Besides this, what am I expected to do?

Generally, use between when there are two persons or things, and among when there are more than two:

There is ill feeling between the two national leaders.
There were predictable differences between the Liberal and Conservative leaders during the debate.
They divided the cost equally among the three of them.

Bimonthly and biweekly usually mean “every two months” and “every two weeks.” But since the prefix bi is sometimes also used to mean “twice,” bimonthly and biweekly could mean the same as semimonthly and semiweekly, i.e. “twice a month” and “twice a week.” In order to be clear, therefore, you may want to avoid bi- and spell out “every two months,” “twice a month,” etc. Semiannually clearly means “twice a year,” and biannual (“twice a year”) is distinguished from biennial (“every two years,” “lasting two years”)—but again you may want to use semiannually or the equivalent phrases, just to be sure.

See can’t hardly etc., and while.

See could.
Opinion and usage are divided, but in formal contexts it is still advisable to use can to denote ability, may to denote permission:

May I have your attention, please?
He can walk and chew gum at the same time.
He knew that he might leave if he wished, but he could not make himself rise from his chair.

Barely, hardly, never, only, and scarcely are regarded as negatives or as having a negative force. Therefore don’t use words like can’t, don’t, couldn’t, and without with them, for the result is an ungrammatical double negative. Use instead the positive forms: “I can hardly believe it. He could scarcely finish on time. He emerged from the ordeal with hardly a scratch.” (Some writers also consider but a word not to be preceded by negatives, especially can’t or cannot; others object only to cannot but or can’t help but as redundant; but many consider both usages acceptable.)

This is an illogical phrase. The meaning of the word centre (or focus) calls for a different preposition:

The discussion centred on the proposed amendment.

In formal contexts, use compare to to liken one thing to another, to express similarity:

Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?
He compared his work to flying a kite.
and compare with to measure or evaluate one thing against another:
She compared the sports car with the SUV to see which would be best for her.
He compared favourably with the assistant she had had the previous year.
Compared with a desk job, farm work is more healthful by far.

Complementary is the adjective describing something that adds to or completes something else. Complimentary is the adjective describing something free (complimentary tickets or passes) or comments intended to praise or flatter someone.

Complementary exercises reinforcing the principles covered in this module are available on the course website. [the exercises will complete the module]
We won complimentary passes to the Toronto Film Festival. [the passes are free]
Their comments on our panel presentation were complimentary, and so we are eager to participate in next year’s conference as well. [Those on the panel received praise for their presentation.]

(See unique etc.)

Distinguish carefully between these words. Strictly, comprise means “consist of, contain, take in, include”:

The municipal region comprises several cities and towns.
His duties comprise opening and shutting the shop, keeping the shelves stocked at all times, and making daily bank deposits.

These words are sometimes considered interchangeable, but continual more often refers to something that happens frequently or even regularly but with interruptions, and continuous to something that occurs constantly, without interruptions:

The speaker’s voice went on in a continuous drone, in spite of the heckler’s continual attempts to interrupt.

These words are often used interchangeably; both mean “to cause someone to believe or do something.” But for many writers there is still a useful distinction between them: with convince the emphasis is more likely to be on the belief, with persuade on the action. You either convince or persuade someone of something or that something is so, but you persuade someone to do something. Further, convince implies appeal to reason, logic, hard facts; persuade implies appeal both to reason and to emotion. Convince also connotes an overcoming of objections, a change of mind. (The distinction is perhaps blurred by the fact that changing one’s mind is itself a sort of action.)

See can, may.

Many writers find this verb awkward when used with a direct object or in the passive voice:

us: He culminated his remarks with strong support for the healthcare legislation.
us: The building was culminated by a revolving restaurant and an observation deck.
It is better to use it only intransitively, usually with the preposition in:
Our search culminates here.
His speech culminated in strong support for the healthcare legislation.
The building culminated in a revolving restaurant and an observation deck.

The phrase despite that is similar in meaning to but, nevertheless, however:

The weather was cold. Despite that, we enjoyed our hike.

From is the idiomatic preposition after different:

Your car is noticeably different from mine.

To differ from something or someone is to be unlike in some way; to differ with someone is to disagree, to quarrel:

She differed from her colleague in that she was less prone than he to differ with everyone on every issue.

A much misused word, the adjective disinterested means “impartial, objective, free from personal bias.” Although it is often used as a synonym for uninterested, not interested (no doubt partly because of increasing use of the noun disinterest to mean “lack of interest” as well as “impartiality”), in formal contexts retain the distinction between the two:

It is necessary to find a judge who is disinterested in the case, for she will then try it fairly; we assume that she will not also be uninterested in it, for then she would be bored by it, and not pay careful attention.

Use due to only as a predicate adjective + preposition after a form of the verb be:

The accident was due to bad weather.

These are interchangeable, though each other more often refers to two, one another to more than two (see also between, among):

The bride and groom kissed each other.
The five boys traded hockey cards with one another.

See affect, effect.

As indefinite pronouns or adjectives, these usually refer to one or the other of two things, not more than two; for three or more, use any or any (one) or none:

Either of these two advisers can answer your questions.
Neither of the two answers is correct.
Any (one) of the four proposals is acceptable.
None of the four of us drove in today.

See unique etc.

This noun does not mean “immensity, great size, enormousness,” but rather “outrageousness, heinousness, atrocity,” or at least “immoderateness, immorality.”

In pronouncing sentence, the judge emphasized the enormity of the arsonist’s crime.

See unique etc.

Avoid this redundancy by dropping one word or the other or by substituting just as. In expressions like the following, as is unnecessary:

Her first novel was highly praised, and her second is equally good.
He may be a good high jumper, but she can jump equally high, if not higher.

Especially means “particularly, unusually”; specially means “specifically, for a certain or special purpose”:

We especially want our parents to come; we planned the party specially for their wedding anniversary.
It’s especially cold today; I’m going to wear my specially made jacket.

See man, woman, lady, etc.

See unique etc.

Ever is not needed after seldom and rarely. Instead of rarely ever, you may say hardly ever.

Although the distinction between these is often overlooked, use farther and farthest to refer to physical distance and further and furthesteverywhere else, such as when referring to time and degree, and when used to mean something like “more” or “in addition”:

To go any farther down the road is the furthest thing from my mind.
Rather than delay any further, he began his research, beginning with the book farthest from him.
Without further delay, she began her speech.

See unique etc.

See simple, simplistic.

Don’t loosely use the word feel when what you really mean is think or believe. Feel is more appropriate to emotional or physical attitudes and responses, think and believe to those dependent on reasoning:

The defendant felt cheated by the decision; she believed that her case had not been judged impartially.
I feel the need of sustenance; I think I had better have something to eat.
I feel good about starting my new job; given my previous experience, I think I will fit in well.

See less, fewer.

See literally, virtually, figuratively.

Since some find the ly ending old-fashioned and unnecessary in enumerations, just say first, second, third, etc. Many object only to the word firstly, so even if you decide to use secondly, thirdly, etc., begin with first, not firstly.

See centre around.

If you avoid using following as a preposition meaning simply “after,” you’ll avoid both the criticism of those who object to it as pretentious and the possibility of its being momentarily misread as a participle or a gerund:

ambig: Following the incident, she interviewed those involved to gain further details.

Use these only when referring to the first or second of two things, not three or more (when first or last would be appropriate), and only when the reference is clear and unambiguous—i.e. when it is to something immediately preceding. Like above and below, they are worth avoiding if possible.

See toward, towards.

See in terms of.

See toward, towards.

See unique etc.

Although frequently used as if it meant “full, copious, abundant,” especially in the phrase “fulsome praise,” the word actually means “overfull, excessive” because insincere, and therefore “disgusting, offensive to good taste,” and even “nauseating.”

See farther, further.

To avoid confusion and error with these words, remember that good and bad are adjectives, badly and well adverbs (except when well is an adjective meaning “healthy”). (See also #20b.2.)

The model looks good in that business suit. (He is attractive.)
That suit looks bad on you because it fits badly.
Nathan acted bad. (He was naughty.)
Nathan acted badly. (His performance as Hamlet was terrible.)
I feel good. (I am happy, in good spirits.)
I feel bad. (I have a splitting headache.)
She feels bad about what happened. (She broke her mother’s vase.)
Sophia looks well. (She looks healthy, not sick.)
This wine travels well. (It wasn’t harmed by the long train journey.)
The infielders played especially well today; they are all good players.
The steak smells good. (My mouth is watering.)
Your dog doesn’t smell well. (He’s too old to hunt.)

Both are correct; use whichever sounds smoother or more logical. (Is half a loaf better than a halfloaf? Is a half hour more formal than half an hour?) But don’t use a half a(n); one article is enough.

In formal writing, use the past-tense form hanged only when referring to a death by hanging. For all other uses of the verb hang, the correct past form is hung.

These verbs sometimes pose a problem for students with English as an additional language. Both verbs are intransitive and cannot take the passive-voice form in any tense.

wrong: The revolution was happened in 1917.
right: The revolution happened in 1917.

wrong: My parents’ wedding was occurred in September 1970.
right: My parents’ wedding occurred in September 1970.

See can’t hardly etc.

See of.

Although healthy is common in both senses, in formal writing it may be useful to preserve the distinction, using healthy to mean “in good health” and healthful to mean “contributing to good health”:

To stay healthy, one should participate in a healthful sport like swimming.

See #15d.

See #14h.

In formal writing, use this adverb, meaning “full of hope,” only to modify a verb or a verbal adjective:

“Will you lend me ten dollars?” I asked hopefully.
Smiling hopefully, she began to untie the package.

See hanged, hung.

See infer, imply.

See unique etc.

These are often interchangeable, but usually you will want to use in to indicate location inside of, or a state or condition, and into to indicate movement toward the inside of, or a change of state or condition; in other words, generally use into with verbs of motion and the like:

He went into the kitchen, but she was in the den.
We moved into our new home in the suburbs.
After getting into trouble, he was understandably in a bad temper.
I assured her I would look into the matter.

See in terms of.

This is not simply a synonym for person. Reserve the word individual for times when the meaning “distinct from others” is present, or when certain people are being distinguished from a different kind of body or institution:

The person [not individual] you are referring to is my aunt.
Elsa is very much an individual in her behaviour. (i.e. she behaves like no one else.)
The legal restrictions apply to the company itself, but not to the individuals within it.

Use imply to mean “suggest, hint at, indicate indirectly” and infer to mean “conclude by reasoning, deduce.” A listener or reader can infer from a statement something that its speaker or writer implies in it:

Her speech strongly implied that we could trust her.
I inferred from her speech that she was trustworthy.

See unique etc.

See in terms of.

See in terms of.

See in terms of.

See of.

This phrase is another example of contemporary clutter. Note that it is similar, sometimes even equivalent, to other wordy expressions (see basis and -wise). Although it is common in speech, and though occasionally it is the precisely appropriate phrase, it is more often vague; worse, it is capable of leading to such inane utterances as this (by a governor of a drought-stricken state): “We’re very scarce in terms of water.” If you can avoid it, especially in writing, do so; don’t write sentences like these:

He tried to justify the price increase in terms of [or on the basis of] the company’s increased operating costs.
In terms of experience [or Experience-wise], she was as qualified for the post as anyone else applying for it.
In terms of fuel economy, this car is better than any other in its class.
She first considered the problem in terms of the length of time it would take her to solve it.

Drop the s: in (with) regard to. As regards is acceptable. But see #71h and in terms of.

See in, into.

This is nonstandard, as your dictionary should tell you. The prefix ir (= not) is redundant with less, forming a double negative (see can’t hardly). The correct word is regardless.

See reason . . . is because.

Although often standard (“Early morning is when the cocks crow,” “Home is where the heart is”), avoid these phrases in statements of definition, where adverbial clauses following linking verbs are considered ungrammatical:

us: A double play is when two base runners are put out during one play.
rev: In a double play, two base runners are put out during one play.
rev: A double play occurs when two base runners are put out during one play.

Its—without the apostrophe—is the possessive form of it; it’s—with the apostrophe—is the contracted form of it is, or occasionally of it has (as in “It’s been a long day”). It’s easy to slip when writing at speed, so proofread carefully for these usages.

The suffix ize (or ise) has long been used to turn nouns and adjectives into verbs (e.g. democratize, galvanize, satirize, generalize, harmonize, idolize, modernize, theorize). But like -wise, it is now sometimes overused, especially in business and other jargon (finalize, concretize, prioritize), leading even to such absurdities as this: “Let us not forget that the minister voluntarily resigned; had he not, he would surely have been pressurized to go.” The ize ending remains acceptable in established words, but avoid using it to make new ones. (See -wise, and see also the Proofreading Tip in #71g.)

Used adverbially, as in “kind of tired” or “sort of strange,” these terms are colloquial—as they are when followed by an article: “I had a bad kind of an afternoon”; “She was a rather peculiar sort of a guide.” More formally, say “I had a bad afternoon” and “She was a rather peculiar guide.” (See also type, and #15f.)

Lack in its various forms and parts of speech can sometimes pose problems for students with English as an additional language. Note the following standard usages:

This paper lacks a clear argument. (lack as a transitive verb)
A major weakness of his argument was its lack of evidence. (lack as a noun followed by the preposition of)
Lacking confidence, she gave up on her research. (lacking as a present participle followed by a direct object)
Lacking in experience, they had difficulty in job interviews. (lacking as a present participle in combination with the preposition in)

See man, woman, lady, etc.

See former, latter.

See lie, lay.

See loan, lend.

Fewer refers to things that are countable (i.e. that appear as plural nouns); less is sometimes used the same way (e.g. on the signs at the express checkout lanes in supermarkets—“9 items or less”), but usually it is preferable to use it for things that are measured rather than counted or considered as units (i.e. with uncountable nouns):

fewer dollars, less money
fewer hours, less time
fewer shouts, less noise
fewer cars, less traffic
fewer bottles of wine, less wine

See #19b and #20c.

The verbs let and make are parts of an idiom that causes problems, especially for those with English as an additional language. When let or make is followed by a direct object and an infinitive, the infinitive does not include the customary to:

id: They let me to borrow their new car.
revised: They let me borrow their new car.
id: Our professor made us to participate in the experiment.
revised: Our professor made us participate in the experiment.

See likely, liable, apt.

Since lay is both the past tense of lie and the present tense of the verb lay, some writers habitually confuse these two verbs. If necessary, memorize their principal parts: lie, lay, lain; lay, laid, laid. The verb lie means “recline” or “be situated”; lay means “put” or “place.” Lie is intransitive; lay is transitive:

I lie down now; I lay down yesterday; I have lain down several times today.
I lay the book on the desk now; I laid the book on the desk yesterday; I have laid the book on the desk every morning for a week.
The book lies on the desk now; the book lay on the desk yesterday; the book has lain on the desk for an hour.

Like is a preposition:

Roger is dressed exactly like Ray.

Although often used interchangeably, especially in informal contexts, in formal writing use likely to mean “probable, probably, showing a tendency, suitable”; liable to mean “legally obligated, responsible, susceptible to (usually something undesirable)”; and apt to refer to probability based on habitual tendency or inclination:

A storm seems likely. He is likely to succeed. This is a likely spot.
She is liable for damages. Tom is liable to headaches. He is liable to hurt himself.
Damon is apt to trip over his own feet.

Literally means “actually, really.” Virtually means “in effect, practically.” Figuratively means “metaphorically, not literally.” All too often the first two are used to mean their opposites, or as weak intensifiers:

us: She was literally swept off her feet. (i.e. figuratively)
us: They were caught in a virtual downpour. (It was a downpour; drop virtual)

Although some people restrict loan to being a noun, it is generally acceptable as a verb equivalent to lend—except in such figurative uses as “Metaphors lend colour to one’s style” and “lend a hand.”

Although common in informal contexts to mean “angry,” mad in formal contexts is usually restricted to the meaning “insane, crazy.”

See let, make.

Like the use of he as a generic pronoun (see #15d), the general or generic use of the word man causes difficulties. To avoid biased language, most writers now try to avoid the term man where it could include the meaning woman or women. If you’re referring to a single individual, often simply substituting the word person will do, or in some contexts human being. If you’re referring to the race, instead of man or mankind, use human beings, humanity, people, humankind, or the human race. Instead of manmade, use syntheticor artificial or manufactured. (Note that several words beginning with man-, such as manufacture, manuscript, manoeuvre, come not from the English word man but from the Latin manus, “hand.”) Similarly, in compounds designating various occupations and positions, try to avoid the suffix man by using gender-neutral terms such as firefighter, police officer, letter carrier, worker or labourer (instead of workman), supervisor or manager (instead of foreman); and though some people object to it, the suffix person is becoming more and more common: spokesperson, chairperson (or just chair), anchor­person (or just anchor), businessperson, salesperson (but see #67). (See also person, persons, people.)

Another concern is the suffix -ess. Usefully gender-specific (and power-designating) terms like princess, empress, duchess, and goddess are firmly established, but there is seldom if ever any need to refer to an authoress or poetess when simply author or poet will serve; many now eschew actress, finding actor more suitable for both sexes. Stewardess has given way to flight attendant; and waitress and waiter have been replaced by server. The suffix -ette, as in usherette, is similarly demeaning; use usher. And don’t use lady as a substitute for woman.

Further, don’t thoughtlessly gender-stereotype occupations and other activities that are engaged in by both men and women; think about doctors, lawyers, business executives, secretaries, nurses, construction workers, cabdrivers, truckdrivers, family cooks, food-shoppers, fishing enthusiasts, and so on. And don’t refer, for example, to a “woman doctor” unless gender is somehow relevant to the context, in which case you’ll probably also refer to another doctor as a man, or “male.” And don’t, for example, highlight gender (as in female athlete, female doctor) unless it is somehow relevant to the context, in which case you would also refer to a male athlete or a male doctor. Similarly, if you’re writing about English novelists and refer to Charles Dickens, refer also to Jane Austen, not “Miss Austen”; if you subsequently refer to him as simply Dickens, refer to her as Austen. Finally, use the title Ms. for a woman unless you know that a specific woman prefers Miss or Mrs.

Sources focused on issues of gender and English usage differ on the use of the word woman in phrases such as woman doctor, woman judge, woman premier. These sources suggest that it is only appropriate to use woman adjectivally if one would also use man in the same manner. And one would rarely, if ever, use man in this way. Instead, male would be the obvious choice. It follows, then, that female is preferable to woman in specific contexts calling attention to gender.

The accident victim asked to be examined by a female doctor.
The prime minister set a precedent by appointing the first female judge to the Supreme Court.
She has been featured in a magazine story as the longest serving female premier in Canada.

Don’t use materialistic when all you need is the adjective material. Material means “physical, composed of matter,” or “concerned with physical rather than spiritual or intellectual things”; it is often the sufficient word:

Her life is founded almost entirely on material values.

See can, may.

Don’t confuse your reader by using may where might is required:

(a) after another verb in the past tense:

us: She thought she may get a raise. (use might)

See #18h and #62i.6.

See may, might and can, may.

Though often used to mean “in a moment, soon” (“We’ll be eating momentarily”), many prefer to restrict it to meaning “for a moment” (“Her attention wandered momentarily”). Since the word is therefore sometimes capable of being misunderstood, some writers avoid it altogether. (See also presently.)

See material, materialistic.

See #19b and #20c.

Although more importantly is widely used as a kind of sentence adverb, many writers object to it on grammatical grounds, preferring more important (as if it were a shorter version of “what is more important”).

See man, woman, lady, etc., and #53a.

See #14h.

See unique etc.

See either, neither.

See can’t hardly etc.

See anyways etc.

See amount, number.

See happen, occur.

Keep in mind the following three points about the preposition of:

(a) legitimate use with all before some pronouns and some proper nouns:

Bring all of them.
We travelled across all of Canada.

See of.

This preposition is sometimes unidiomatic when used as a substitute for about or of:

id: She had no doubts on what to do next. (about)
id: I am calling my essay “A Study on the Effects of Globalization.” (of)

See due to.

See each other, one another.

See can’t hardly etc.

See verbal, oral.

See of.

See due to.

See person, persons, people.

Although useful and at home in technical and business writing, the Latin per is usually out of its element in other writing, except when part of a Latin phrase (per capita, per cent); especially do not use it to mean simply “by, by means of, through” (as in business contexts: “per bearer”) or “according to” (“per your instructions”).

See unique etc.

Partly to avoid gender-biased language (man, woman, the generic he), some people overuse the word person in what often sounds a wordy, jargony way (for example, “The persons responsible for the accident have received a summons to traffic court”). Try to avoid it, or instead use one, or even you (see #15d). In the plural, use persons only when the number in question is small, say one or two or three (“Two persons refused to sign the petition”) or when you want to emphasize the presence of individuals in a group (“Those persons wishing to attend the party should sign up now”), but even then the demonstrative pronoun those alone will often serve better (“Those wishing to attend . . .”). Otherwise, use people, which is normal even for referring to small numbers: “One or two people may object.” (See also man, woman, lady, etc. and individual.)

See in terms of.

See convince, persuade.

See d in Appendix 2.

See unique etc.

Since some people think that presently should mean only “in a short while, soon,” and others think that it instead, or also, means “at present, currently, now,” resulting in at least occasional ambiguity, many writers try to avoid the word altogether. Use the alternative terms and your meaning will be clear. (See also momentarily.)

See set forth.

In contexts that are at all formal, use this only as a verb; don’t use it as a noun, equivalent to “quotation” or “quotation mark.”

The verb raise is transitive, requiring an object: “I raised my hand; he raises horses.” Rise is intransitive: “The temperature rose sharply; I rise each morning at dawn.” If necessary, memorize their principal parts: raise, raised, raised; rise, rose, risen.

If necessary, use your dictionary to help you keep these words straight. The person who wrote that “Huxley’s novel is not about realistic people” was at best being ambiguous: does realistic here mean “lifelike,” or “facing facts”? The one who wrote “He based his conclusions not on theory but on realistic observation” probably meant “observation of reality.” (See also material, materialistic.)

See very and Proofreading Tip in #20b.

Although this construction has long been common, especially in speech, many people object to it as (a) redundant, since because often means simply “for the reason that,” and as (b) ungrammatical, since adverbial because should not introduce noun clauses after a linking verb (critics for the same reason object to it is because, this is because, and the like). However common such phrases may be, we suggest that you avoid them, especially in formal writing, since they are likely to draw criticism—especially the reason is because.

The why in this phrase is often redundant, as in “The reason why I’m taking Spanish is that I want to travel in South America.” Check to see if you need the why.

When this transitive verb appears in a clause with an indirect object, that object must be expressed as a prepositional phrase with to or for, and it must follow the direct object:

id: She recommended me this restaurant.
id: She recommended to me this restaurant.
revised: She recommended this restaurant to me.

See in terms of.

See material, materialistic.

See raise, rise.

See unique etc.

See can’t hardly etc.

See being that, being as how.

Although the meanings of these words overlap, and the two are often used interchangeably, sensuous is traditionally used to refer broadly to intellectual or physical pleasure derived from the senses, while sensual, on the other hand, usually refers to the gratification of physical—particularly sexual—appetites:

Some Canadian poets, responding to the beauty of their natural environment, write sensuous poetry.
We are studying the sensual features of contemporary love poetry.

Set (principal parts set, set, set) means “put, place, cause to sit”; it is transitive, requiring an object: “He set the glass on the counter.” Sit (principal parts sit, sat, sat) means “rest, occupy a seat, assume a sitting position”; it is intransitive: “The glass sits on the counter. May I sit in the easy chair?”—though it can be used transitively in expressions like “I sat myself down to listen,” “She sat him down at the desk.” (See also lie, lay.)

As a stiff, unwieldy substitute for express(ed) or present(ed) or state(d), this phrase is an attempt at sophistication that misfires. Put forth is similarly weak.

See #17e, #17h.3, and #17i.2.

See #15d.

Don’t use simplistic when all you want is simple. Simplistic means “oversimplified, unrealistically simple.”:

We admire the book for its simple explanations and straightforward advice.
The author’s assessment of the war’s causes was narrow and simplistic.

Since can refer both to time (“Since April we haven’t had any rain”) and to cause (“Since she wouldn’t tell him, he had to figure it out for himself”). Therefore don’t use since in a sentence where it could mean either:

ambig: Since you went away, I’ve been sad and lonely.

See set, sit.

As a conjunction, so is informal but acceptable (see #23a.3); just don’t overwork it. To introduce clauses of purpose and to avoid possible ambiguity, you will often want to use so that or therefore instead:

He sharpened the saw so that it would cut the boards properly.
She cleverly changed her story several times, so that we couldn’t be sure what actually happened.
She changed her story several times; therefore we couldn’t be sure what actually happened.

In strictly formal contexts, use so or so . . . as with negative comparisons; use as or as . . . as only with positive comparisons:

Belinda was almost as tall as he was, but she was not so heavy.
He was not so light on his feet as he once was, but he was as strong as ever.

See anyplace, someplace.

See anyways etc.

See kind of, sort of.

See especially, specially.

See unique etc.

State is a stronger verb than say; reserve state for places where you want the heavier, more forceful meaning of “assert, declare, make a formal statement.”

See unique etc.

Don’t use substitute when you mean replace—i.e. don’t follow it with by or with; use it only with for:

us: The french fries were substituted by a tossed salad. (replaced)
us: I substituted the term paper with three shorter essays. (replaced)
revised: The server kindly substituted a tossed salad for the greasy french fries.
revised: I was permitted to substitute three short essays for the term paper.

Don’t use sure as an adverb. (See Proofreading Tip in #20b.)

Though suspicious can mean arousing suspicion, it is sometimes best to reserve it for the person in whom the suspicions are aroused, using the adjective suspect for the object of those suspicions; otherwise ambiguity may result (unless the context makes the meaning clear):

ambig: He was a very suspicious man.
clear: I thought his actions suspect.
clear: He was suspicious of everyone he met.
clear: All of us were suspect in the eyes of the police.

This verb is often no more than a filler. Don’t say “My French teacher tends to mark strictly” when what you mean is “My French teacher marks strictly.”

See so, so that, therefore.

See #15f.

See feel(s).

See although, though.

Till and until are both standard, and have the same meaning. Until is probably felt to be somewhat more formal, and (like the two-syllable Although) is usually preferable at the beginning of a sentence. The contraction ’til is little used nowadays, except in markedly informal contexts, such as personal letters.

Used as an intensifier, too is sometimes illogical; if an intensifier is necessary in such sentences as these, use very:

ww: I don’t like my cocoa too hot.
revised: I don’t like my cocoa very hot.
ww: She didn’t care for the brown suit too much.
revised: She didn’t care for the brown suit very much.

These are interchangeable, but in North American (as opposed to British) English, the preposition toward is usually preferred to towards, just as the adverbs afterward, forward (meaning frontward), and backward are to their counterparts ending in s.

Any reference to true facts is an attempt to be emphatic that backfires into illogic. If there are such things as “true facts” or “real facts,” what are “false facts” or “unreal facts”? Let the word facts mean what it is supposed to; trying to prop it up with true or real makes a reader or listener suspect it of being weak or insincere.

Don’t use type as an adjective or part of an adjective, as in “He is a very athletic type person.” In any but a technical context, the word type has the ring of jargon, even when followed by the obligatory of; without the of it is colloquial at best. In general writing, if you can substitute kind of for type of, do so—but even then check to make sure you really need it, for often it is unnecessary, mere deadwood: “She is an intelligent [kind of] woman.” As a hyphenated suffix, -type is similarly often unnecessary, as well as being one of the results of the impulse to turn nouns into adjectives: “This is a new-type vegetable slicer,” or “He is a patriotic-type person.” Avoid it. (See also kind of, sort of.)

In writing, especially formal writing, treat these and other such adjectives as absolutes that cannot logically be compared or modified by such adverbs as very and rather. Since by definition something unique is the only one of its kind or without equal, clearly one thing cannot be “more unique” than another, or even “very unique”; in other words, unique is not a synonym for unusual or rare. Similarly with the others: one thing cannot be “more necessary” than another. Since perfect means “without flaw,” there cannot be degrees of perfection. Colloquially, expressions of degree or comparison with these terms are fairly common, especially those like round, square, full, empty, and straight. But strictly speaking, a thing is either round or not; one tennis ball cannot be “rounder” than another. And so on. And note that you can easily get around this semantic limitation by calling one thing, for example, “more nearly perfect,” “more nearly round,” or “closer to round” than another, or by referring to something as “almost unique” or “nearly unique” (but you could simply call it “very rare” or “highly unusual”).

See till, until, ’til.

The noun usage is appropriate when you mean customary or habitual use, whether verbal or otherwise (“British usage,” “the usages of the early Christians”), or a particular verbal expression being characterized in a particular way (“an ironic usage,” “an elegant usage”). Otherwise the shorter noun use is preferable. As a verb, use should nearly always suffice; utilize, often pretentiously employed instead, should carry the specific meaning “put to use, make use of, turn to practical or profitable account.” Similarly, the noun use will usually be more appropriate than utilization. Phrases like use of, the use of, by the use of, and through the use of tend toward jargon and are almost always wordy.

Although these words are commonly used interchangeably, you may want to preserve the still useful distinction between them. Verbal regularly means “pertaining to words,” which could be either written or spoken. If you mean “spoken aloud,” then oral is preferable. (In some special contexts verbal is often used to mean oral as opposed to written: “verbal contract, verbal agreement”—but even these usages can be ambiguous; oral and written would make the circumstances precisely clear.)

When revising, you may find that where you have used very you could just as well omit it. Often it is a vague or euphemistic substitute for a more precise adverb or adjective:
It was very sunny today. (magnificently sunny?)

I was very tired. (exhausted?)
He was very intoxicated. (falling-down drunk?)
Her embarrassment was very obvious. (It was either obvious or it wasn’t; drop very, or change it to something like painfully.)

See literally, virtually, figuratively.

In formal usage, especially in writing, don’t use ways to refer to distance; way is correct:

We were a long way from home.
They had only a little way to go.

See good, bad, badly, well.

See is when, is where.

See while.

As a subordinating conjunction, while is best restricted to meanings having to do with time:

While Vijay mowed the lawn, Honoree raked up the grass clippings.
She played the piano while I prepared the dinner.

See #17h.3.

Just as -ize (or -ise) has long been used to turn nouns and adjectives into verbs, -wise has been used to turn them into adverbs, e.g. of manner or position: clockwise, crabwise, lengthwise, edgewise, sidewise, likewise, otherwise. But this suffix, in its sense of “with reference to” (and equivalent phrases), is so overused in modern jargon (moneywise, sales-wise, personnel-wise, etc.) that it is now employed mainly as a source of humour (“And how are you otherwise-wise?”). Therefore do not tack it onto nouns, for it produces such inanities as what a politician once announced: “We’ve just had our best month ever, fundraisingwise.” It is acceptable in established words but not, or seldom, in new coinages. You can easily find a way to say what you mean without resorting to it (see in terms of):

not: Grammarwise, Stephen is doing well.
but: Stephen is doing well with grammar.

not: Insurance-wise, I believe I am well enough protected.
but: I believe I have enough insurance.

not: This is the best car I’ve ever owned, powerwise.
but: This car has more power than any other I’ve owned.

See in terms of.

See in terms of.

See man, woman, lady, etc.

See #17e and #17i.2.